Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury

Background

Based on statements found in the recent Orthopaedic Knowledge Update regarding the increased incidence of knee ligament injuries, the author proposes that this incidence may be associated with the current emphasis on fitness. These injuries are most often a result of low-velocity, noncontact, deceleration injuries and contact injuries with a rotational component. Contact sports also may produce injury to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) secondary to twisting, valgus stress, or hyperextension all directly related to contact or collision.

The MRI image below shows a rupture ACL:

MRI displaying a ruptured anterior cruciate ligament.

When matched for activities, a greater prevalence for ACL injury is found in females compared with males. Approximately 50% of patients with ACL injuries also have meniscal tears. In acute ACL injuries, the lateral meniscus is more commonly torn; in chronic ACL tears, the medial meniscus is more commonly torn. The only study on the prevalence of ACL injuries in the general population has estimated the incidence as 1 case in 3,500 people, resulting in 95,000 new ACL ruptures per year.

The importance of the ACL has been emphasized in athletes who require stability in running, cutting, and kicking. The ACL-deficient knee has also been linked to an increased rate of degenerative changes and meniscal injuries. For these reasons, approximately 60,000-75,000 ACL reconstructions are performed annually in the United States.

For restoration of activity and stability, the expected long-term success rate of ACL reconstruction is between 75-95%. The current failure rate is 8%, which may be attributed to recurrent instability, graft failure, or arthrofibrosis.

Treatment options must be tailored to a patient's preoperative level of activity. The following activity levels are based on the International Knee Documentation Committee:

level I includes jumping, pivoting, and hard cutting.level II is heavy manual work or side-to-side sports.level III encompasses light manual work and noncutting sports (eg, running, cycling).level IV is sedentary activity without sports.

Nonsurgical treatment may be considered for patients who participate in level III or IV activities; all others should be considered as candidates for surgery. In addition, consider surgical consultation on any young athlete due to potential complications from recurrent instability.[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Recent studies

A recent randomized, prospective study by Wipfler et al comparing bone-patella-bone (BTB) autografts to hamstring tendon (HT) grafts at 9 years demonstrated significantly better International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) scores in the HT group, with no significant differences in laxity, tunnel widening, or any other parameters.[7]

Leys et al also found equivalent IKDC scores and better long-term outcomes (radiological evidence of osteoarthritis, level of activity, knee motion and single leg hop test) in HT versus BTB in a long-term cohort study following patients for 15 years postoperatively. The HT group had higher ipsilateral graft rupture rates (17% versus 8%), but lower contralateral ACL injury (12% versus 26%).[8]

One study compared the clinical outcomes of ACL reconstruction with hamstring tendon autograft versus irradiated allograft. The results found the rate of laxity with irradiated allograft was higher than that with autograft (32.3% vs 8.3%, respectively) in the 67 patients studied. Statistically significant differences were noted between the groups in the Lachman test (P = .00011), anterior drawer test (P = .00016), pivot-shift test (P = .008), and KT-2000 arthrometer assessment (P = .00021); the anterior and rotational stabilities decreased significantly in the irradiated allograft group. No significant differences were found between the 2 groups in functional and subjective evaluations, and activity level testing; however, patients in the irradiated allograft group had a shorter operative time and a longer duration of postoperativefever.[9]

Another study evaluated the outcome of anatomic double-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with hamstring tendon autografts in both women and men. After a 2-year postoperative evaluation, the results noted that the assessment results for ligament laxity were approximately identical in both groups.[10]

The results from another study noted that 11 years after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, both hamstring and patellar tendon autografts provided good long-term outcomes and stability. However, a positive result on the pivot-shift (1+) test was significantly more frequent in the patellar tendon group, as was the rate of osteoarthritis.[11]

Geib et al compared intermediate-term outcomes of ACL reconstruction by bone-patellar tendon-bone (BPTB) with the outcomes associated with quadriceps tendon with a bone plug (BQT) and quadriceps tendon without a bone plug (QT). They found that QT and BQT produced results equivalent to those of BPTB autograft in arthroscopically assisted ACL reconstruction. When compared with BPTB autograft, the quadriceps tendon autograft showed significantly better results, with less anterior knee pain (4.56% vs 26.7%), less anterior numbness (1.5% vs 53.3%), a higher percentage of arthrometer measurements showing a side-to-side difference of 0 to 3 mm (88% vs 68%), and better extension (mean loss, 0.55º vs 2.77º).[12]

According to the results of a study by Marchant et al, computed tomography is the most reliable imaging modality for evaluation of ACL bone tunnels, as proven by superior intraobserver and interobserver testing results, when compared with results obtained with MRI and radiographs. According to the authors, radiographs and MRIs were not reliable even for identifying the presence of a bone tunnel. Intraobserver kappa scores for tibial cross-sectional area using CT, radiographs, and MRI were 0.66, 0.5, and 0.37, respectively. Interobserver kappa scores for tibial cross-sectional area using CT, radiographs, and MRI were 0.65, 0.39, and 0.32, respectively.[13]

According to a study of National Football League players by Brophy et al, a history of meniscectomy, but not ACL reconstruction, shortens the expected career of a professional football player, but a combination of ACL reconstruction and meniscectomy may be more detrimental to an athlete's durability than either surgery alone. In their study, 54 athletes with a history of meniscectomy, 29 with a history of ACL reconstruction, and 11 with a history of both were identified and matched with control subjects. Isolated meniscectomy reduced the length of career in both years (5.6 vs 7.0; P = .03) and games played (62 vs 85; P = .02). Isolated ACL surgery did not significantly reduce the length of career in years or games played. Athletes with a history of both surgeries had shorter careers in games started (7.9 vs 35.1; P [14]

Lyman et al found that although ACL reconstruction appears to be a safe procedure, the risk of a subsequent operation on either knee is increased among younger patients and those treated by a lower-volume surgeon or at a lower-volume hospital. According to the authors, patients were at increased risk for readmission within 90 days after surgery if they were older than 40 years, sicker (eg, had a preexisting comorbidity), male, or operated on by a lower-volume surgeon. Predictors of subsequent knee surgery included being female, having concomitant knee surgery, and being operated on by a lower-volume surgeon. Predictors of a subsequent ACL reconstruction included age less than 40 years, concomitant meniscectomy or other knee surgery, and surgery in a lower-volume hospital.[4]

NextEpidemiologyFrequencyUnited States

An estimated 200,000 ACL-related injuries occur annually in the United States, with approximately 95,000 ACL ruptures. Approximately 100,000 ACL reconstructions are performed each year. The incidence of ACL injury is higher in people who participate in high-risk sports such as basketball, football, skiing, and soccer. When the frequency of participation is considered, a higher prevalence of injury is observed in females over males, at a rate 2.4-9.7 times greater for females.

PreviousNextFunctional Anatomy

The knee joint develops as a cleft between mesenchymal rudiments of the femur and the tibia. This occurs around the eighth week of fetal development. The cruciate ligaments appear as condensations of vascular synovial mesenchyme at the same time.

By 14weeks' gestation, the ACL and posterior cruciate ligament have divided; both have a functional blood supply, which is mainly derived from the middle geniculate artery. The inferomedial and lateral genicular arteries also provide blood supply through the fat pad.

The ACL is composed of densely organized, fibrous collagenous connective tissue that attaches the femur to the tibia. The ACL is composed of 2 groups, the anteromedial and the posterolateral bands. During flexion, the anterior band is taut, while the posterior band is loose; during extension, the posterolateral band is tight, while the anterior band is loose.

The ACL attaches to bone through a transitional zone of fibrocartilage and mineralized cartilage. On the femur, the ACL is attached to a fossa on the posteromedial edge of the lateral femoral condyle. The tibial insertion is located in a fossa that is anterior and lateral to the anterior tibial spine. The tibial attachment is noted to be somewhat wider and stronger than the femoral attachment.

The ACL is intracapsular and extrasynovial. It courses anteriorly, medially, and distally as it runs from the femur to the tibia.

The ACL receives nerve fibers from the posterior branch of the posterior tibial nerve. The main function is believed to be proprioception, providing the afferent arc for postural changes during motion and ligament deformation.

PreviousNextSport-Specific Biomechanics

The ACL is the primary (85%) restraint to limit anterior translation of the tibia. The greatest restraint is in full extension.

The ACL also serves as a secondary restraint to tibial rotation and varus/valgus angulation at full extension. Since the relationship between the tibia and femur provides little bony stability, the ligamentous structures must provide stability. When the ACL is injured, a combination of anterior translation and rotation occurs.

The average tensile strength for the ACL is 2160 N. This is slightly less than the strength of the posterior cruciate ligament and approximately half as strong as the medial collateral ligament (MCL).

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